In the past, the buddha by the name Indomitable appeared with a body the size of eighty cubits, while the tathagata King of Stars was the size of one inch. The sugata Boundless Life lived for one hundred billion years while the sugata Lord of Assemblies appeared as living for just one day. These buddhas were definitely unlike ordinary people who have different life spans and degrees of merit. The buddhas appeared in those ways because of the different karmic perceptions of the different followers.

The superior qualities of our teacher. Buddha Shakyamuni. were perceived in varying ways, respectively, by common people, the shravaka followers of Hinayana. and the bodhisattva followers of Mahayana. Dcvadatta and the heretics perceived the Buddha only with their impure thoughts. This does not mean that the Buddha himself had different degrees of qualities, but only proves the indi­vidual perceptions of different people.

Master Padma was a supreme nirmanakaya. He appeared free from faults and fully endowed with all eminent qualities. He surely does not remain within the reach of people’s solid fixation on a permanent reality, but appeared according to those to be tamed. Consequendy, the clinging to absolutes concerning whether he took birth from a womb or was born miraculously, whether his different names and deeds in the Indian countries agree with one another, whether there are inconsistencies in the duration he remained in Tibet and so forth arc nothing but causes to exhaust oneself and prove one’s ignorance while attempting to conform the inconceiv­able to fit within the confines of conceptual thinking.

The Great Master expressed the real essence of this in his advice na

Early next morning, the Dry Dock stopped payment. A score more merchants promptly failed. Throughout the city, people began jamming toward bank tellers shout­ing “Pay! Pay!” By May 9 $652,000 in coin had been drained from Manhattan vaults. Then, 0n May 10, all twenty-three of Manhattan’s banks announced they would hence­forth refuse to exchange specie for paper. An infuriated crowd boiled into Wall Street. But the city had summoned up the Twenty-seventh Regiment—”the monopoly aristoc­racy of New-York garrisoned their fortresses with arms and men,” as one Loco Foco put it—and the day passed with much tumult but no bloodshed.

“The volcano has burst and overwhelmed New York,” Hone told his diary, and the repercussions spread swiftly throughout the country. Within twenty-four hours, most

la MEHCANTILE TOWN (l783-l843)

banks in the Northeast had stopped gold and silver payments. More distant states fol­lowed suit as soon as the news from Wall Street reached them. In most places—and cer­tainly New York—suspending specie payments was blatantly illegal, but metropolitan bankers prevailed on the Albany legislature to suspend the law. This saved them from bankruptcy and enabled them to continue doing business. Indeed, now freed from hav­ing to redeem their notes in specie, banks issued them in abundance. James Gordon Bennett, noting that the banks still had millions in coin, denounced this as “legalized and chartered swindling, without a parallel in the annals of crime and imposture.”

On the ides of March 1837, the granite office building of J. L. and S. I. Joseph and Company caved in with a crash that shook every building on Wall Street. Two days later the firm itself collapsed, frightening the financial district far more than had the tum­bling stonework, for the fall of the House of Joseph presaged general disaster.

The firm failed because New Orleans merchants, caught short by a drop in the price of cotton, had defaulted on vast sums they owed their Manhattan creditor. Soon hundreds of other New York City brokers, commission houses, and dry-goods jobbers also found their bills to southerners coming back unpaid. Many of these companies

schilds One after another, dragged down by the foundering cotlon economy, they sank into default-

Mayor Lawrence’s firm—Hicks, Lawrence, and Company—suspended payment on its debts and closed its Wall Street office. Brown and Hone defaulted too. It was “a dark and melancholy day,” former mayor Philip Hone informed his diary. “My eldest son has lost the capital I gave him, and I am implicated as endorser for them to a fearful amount.”

Failure after failure jolted Wall and Pearl streets. By April 8, tht Journal of Com­ment reported, ninety-three firms had gone under. Three days later the total reached 128. “The merchants arc going to the devil tn maw,” wrote George Tcmpleton Strong, a student at Columbia College who had begun keeping a diary as meticulous and opin­ionated as Hone’s.

Demands from overseas creditors escalated the pressure. “The accounts from Eng­land arc very alarming,” Hone noted; “the panic prevails there as bad as here” At April’s end a businessmen’s committee informed newly inaugurated President Van Buren that there had been “more than 250 failures of houses engaged in extensive busi­ness” and that the merchandise in New York’s warehouses had lost a third of its value. As their fortunes melted away, some desperate merchants set fire to their own stores, seeking insurance payouts worth double and treble the value of their stock.

addressed to the audience II in the social situation Sit (C) depending on the spatiotemporal context C”, where r is the transition from Sit to Sit’ (which is a pair of temporally ordered situations).

Then the main task of linguistic analysis could be conceived as giving a precise account of the interpretation function G which maps «’ into a* or, alternatively, of the function g which maps e into r depending on the other factors.

Clearly, a’ (S, C, e) is an expression of the observational language, aJ(S, H, Sit(C), r) is an expression of the theoretical language, both in the sense of scientific language and in the sense of ordinary language as expressing every day concepts which describe and interprete speech events. The scientific study of the relation between or and a should yield an explication of the socially valid concepts of interpretation. Thus the problem is mainly an empirical one, hardly allowing room for arbitrari­ness in underlying theoretical concepts.

A. Kashtr (rd.). Language In Focus. 231-277. All Rights Reserved. Copyright C 1976 by D. Re id* I Publishing Company. Dordrecht-Hoi land.

Austin’s well known theory of locutionsry. illocutionary and per- locutionary acts is an attempt to analyse G (in several steps); so we get statements of the form “in doing (or by doing) x one does y”, which means about y—G’(x) where G’ is a partial interpretation function. Since the partial acts in the theory of Austin are merely analytical con­cepts, not discernible activities of men, we can do the same in analysing g. Of course, this is only a change in the way we deal with the

, White Dutch currants ought to be much more freely grown for dessert They almost invariably bear good crops, and hang well against walls or under carefully lixed close netting till the end of September, or. October even, if protected from birds (like the red).

Both are cultivated in the same manner. They are pruned back severely near to the old wood, three or four inches being left only of tho now wood on the top of each branch. In the summer tho thickest of tho young growth is ofteu removed, to allow of the sun ripening the fruit, and to seoure tho proper development of the new fruit buds on the old ” spurs/’

The best soil is usually found in woU-drainod uplands, and in rich alluvial marshes, if not too heavy. Highty- cultivated sandy soil also suits them well

Like raspberries, red currants are so largely used for jams as well as bottling, jellies, and for tho kitchen  *

Tho Kentish raspberries are mostly sold at per ton on the ground to the ” smashersor jam makers, the farmer undertaking the cost of picking and sonding them in large tubs to the factory. The prices range from £10 up to £30 per ton, in had seasons. Of course, tho smaller growers will do better by cultivating a local trade for dessert and other domestic, purposes, whero they can work up such a’marke

The groundwater supply for agricultural production is routinely considered to be very good. The Ogallala Aquifer underlies this re­gion extending under fully two-thirds of Nebraska. The aquifer ex­tends just into South Dakota to the north and as far south as the Oklahoma Panhandle and west Texas. Although portions of the aquifer have irreversibly dried up in the south and west, the depth to groundwater remains only about four to thirty-five feet in the Platte River valley. In fact, there arc areas in the rainwater basin to the south of the Platte River that have shown a consistent increase in the groundwater supply. This is very likely a consequence of the surfacc watcr-groundwater linkage and the return rate from the river to the aquifer supply because more water has been made available in the river in recent years for wildlife habitat. This has partly been a conse­quence of the cooperative agreement among Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, and the Department of Interior, which is designed to al­locate in-stream river flows for endangered species.

Multiple-Use Pressures

Demand for water in the Big Bend Region of the Platte River re­flects conditions throughout the Great Plains. Although some rural areas have experienced a declinc in population in recent decades, the urban areas continue to expand, and the municipal and industrial de­mand has correspondingly increased. Further, water demand for irri­gation will continue to increase as long as the profit margin is favor­able for key commodities like corn. Hence, there will continue to be intense multiple-use pressures on the key resource of the Great Plains—water. A WATER ETHIC

Ordinarily, discussions about environmental ethics tend to focus on landscapes that arc perceived to be spectacular or at least rare in nature: national parks, mountain ranges, seashores, and wild rivers. Although the Great Plains may seem at first glance to harbor little that is rare, there arc many facets of the region that are at risk.

Because of their size the jack rabbits do much harm to grow­ing crops, and it is a common saying in the West that one rabbit will eat as much as a horse. They eat voraciously all young and tender farm and garden plants and strip young fruit trees of bark. Because of this impartial destruction of grain and forage crops, of gardens and nurseries, the farmers have waged constant war against the rabbits. Bounties have been offered for their ears in practically all Western states; one county in Idaho paid in one year bounties amounting to $300,000. Great rabbit drives are organized, one of which resulted in the taking of 20,000 rabbits. In the ten-year period 1888-1897 a total of 494,634 were killed in California in drives. They are hunted with long-range guns, poisoned, run with greyhounds, and the farmers and small boys kill the young as they are found in the fields. In spite of such wide­spread destruction, the rabbits are still innumerable and bring to the farmers in some seasons heavy losses.1

1 Vernon Bailey, “Biological Survey of Texas.” North American Fauna No. 25. (1905), p. 155.

» T. S. Palmer. “The Jack Rabbits of the United State*.” Bulletin No. 8. United States Department of Agriculture. Bureau of Biological Survey, 1927. A reliable source referred to by nearly all later writers. See also C. V. Piper and others, “Our Forage Resource*.” Yearbook of the United Slates Department of Agriculture. 1923, o. 399; Dodge. The Hunting Grounds of the Great IVest, p. 210.

plateaus, and basins interspersed with small level plains. Topographically speaking, the Great Plains may be said to extend from mountain base to mountain base.

Humanism and Truth

lev’s article on ‘Truth and Practice,’ I understand this as a hint to me to join in the controversy over ‘Pragmatism’ which seems to have seri­ously begun. As my name has been coupled with the movement, I deem it wise to take the hint, the more so as in some quarters greater crcdit has been given me than I deserve, and probably undeserved discredit in other quarters falls also to my lot.

First, as to the word ‘pragmatism.’ I myself have only used the term to indicate a method of carrying on abstract discussion. ‘Ihe serious mean­ing of a concept, savs Mr. Peirce, lies in the concrete difference to some one which its being true will make. Strive to bring all debated concep­tions to that’ pragmatic’ test, and you will escape vain wrangling: if it can make no practical difference which of two statements be true, then they arc rcallv one statement in two verbal forms; if it can make no practical difference whether a given statement be true or false, then the statement has no real meaning. In neither case is there anything fit to quarrel about: we may save our breath, and pass to more important things.

All that the pragmatic method implies, then, is that truths should have practical” conscqucnccs. In England the word has been used more broadly still, to cover the notion that the truth of any statement consists in the conscqucnccs, and particularly in their being good conscqucnccs. Here wc get beyond affairs of method altogether; and since my pragma­tism and this wider pragmatism are so different, and both are important enough to have different names, I think that Mr. Schillcr’s proposal to

Reprinted, with slight verbal revision, from Mind, vol. xiii, N. S., p. 457 (October, 1904). A couple of interpolations from another articic in Mind, ‘Humanism and truth oncc more,’ in vol. xiv, have been made.

Compound gun-shot wounds, analogous to compound fractures, often heal at first very rapidly; but when on their contraction the irritation of the splinter is felt, the incarnation is more slow, and they become fistu­lous. This even happens when the wounds are di­lated; for we can only thus separate the perfectly de­tached splinters, and the others will in time produce the same effects. In this case tents have been usually em­ployed; but if these are omitted there is little danger of the wound healing. If exfoliation is expected, the bone may be exposed to the air to expedite the process; but in general nature forms the* abscess most conve­nient for its exit. The only objections to this rule are when the joints are affected, particularly the small joints of the extremities; for in these, unless the sore is kept open, the suppurative process is disposed to extend; or when the sore continues fistulous, by a disease at its fundus.

The calcareous phosphat of which bone consists is deposited from arteries j but pre­vious to the deposition, the arteries are distended ; and those which did not before carry red blood are now vi­sible from their containing this fluid. In this blood the knife discovers hard particles, which gradually unite for these bony fibres are flat, and radiate as from a centre; no membranous parts are formed, and their shape is generally irregular. In the blood vessels the mem­branes supply the place of those usually connecting the

osseous particles In cartilages, forming the body of the cartilage from which the bone by maceration slips per­fectly distinct. While the bones are increasing within cartilages, the cartilages are extended; and from the pressure which they suffer from the bone within and the integuments externally, they decrease continually, and are at last entirely destroyed.

Dr Hunter, in his Lectures, supports this opinion, by curious anatomical preparations, in opposition to Kerkringius and others, who contend that bones are originally cartilaginous.

Dr. Hunter had a preparation of the patella, in which he demonstrated that the ossification of that bone began by the arteries ossifying in the centre of the cartilage, which, in young subjects, supplies the place of the bony patella. Mr. Cruiksbank prosecuted the subject, from the first appearance of an ossifying artery, to the perfect formation of the patella. He supposed that the same thing took place in all other bones, and demon­strated that ossification is not only begun but carried oa by the ossifying of the arteries

Morbid ossifications frequently happen in the aorta, lungs, pericardium, and even in the corpora cavernosa, penis. The natural process advances in infants in pro­portion to their strength. In flat bones it begius in the centre, and shoots towards the circumference; in long ones, in the middle, shooting towards the extre­mities.

See Kerkringius, Ruysch, Nesbit, Albinus, and- Monro.

OSSIFRA’GA, (from os, a bone, and frango, to break). See OSTEOCOLLA.